TEACHER'S PERCEPTION OF THE EFFICACY OF SOCIAL STUDIES CURRICULUM IN COMMUNAL CONFLICTS RESOLUTION FOR NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTERONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BackgroundtotheStudy
Meaningful social, economic, and political development can only be
achieved in an atmosphere of peace and tranquility where all agents of
development co-exist in harmony. Since independence in 1960, Nigeria as a
nation has been beclouded with multifarious problems such as communal
conflicts, kidnapping, robbery, ritual killing, rape, and drug addiction (Donia &
Eboh, 2013). These problems seem to have brought about backwardness and
a negative image both to Nigeria and Nigerians. Communal conflicts have
specifically affected development adversely both at the local and national levels.
Communal conflicts are violent clashes or disagreements between non-
state groups that are organized along with a shared communal identity. Violent
conflicts in this regard refer to the fact that parties use lethal means to gain control
over some disputed and perceived indivisible resources such as a piece of land,
other minerals and traditional powers (Galtung, 2005). Kesterner and Ray (2006)
define a communal conflict as a social situation in which at least two parties
(individuals, groups, communities or states) are involved and strive for goals
which can only be reached by one party, and or want to employ incompatible
means to achieve a certain goal. It, thus, implies a struggle over values or claim to
status, power, and other resources in which the aim of the groups or communities
involved is not only to obtain the desired values but also to neutralize, injure or
eliminate rivals.
Conflicts seem to be natural phenomena as they are found at every stage of
human life. Individuals, groups, and societies (local, national and international)
continue to experience one form of conflict or the other. In fact, communal
conflicts and crises are said to be permanent features of life that people have
come to live and cope with and resolve from time to time. Their existence, some
people argue, can not be completely eliminated except if existence itself terminates.
However, a poorly handled conflict has a propensity of degenerating into violence
which can lead to massive and irretrievable losses (United States Agency for
international development,USAID,2014).
Communal conflicts take different forms. In order to understand the
different dynamics of communal conflict, it is useful to analyze their underlying
causes or the issue over which they are fought. Olubonihirin (2012) states that
communal conflicts could be as a result of land dispute, chieftaincy squabbles and
marital differences.
Previous studies have attributed many of Nigeria’s communal conflicts to
the failure of its political elites to accept democratic principles of accountability,
equality, justice, and rule of law (Abubakar, 2006; Bamgbose, 2009). The authors
posit that most violent communal conflicts in Nigeria have been traced to
contested bases of citizenship rights, greed, predatory rule, and prolonged
unresolved grievances.
Different forces, as supported by Hoeffler (2005), can be seen to fuel
communal conflicts. The includes dictatorship, poverty, unemployment, illiteracy,
infrastructural decay, ethnic rivalry, and religious intolerance. It is also instructive
to state that in Nigeria particularly, communal conflicts cannot be completely
divorced from religion, tribe, class, and hate(Guseh&Oritsejafor,2007).
Officially, the strategies adopted by the Nigerian government in resolving
communal conflicts include states or local government creation, the use of Nigeria
Police Force, the Nigeria military (in extreme cases), imposing curfew,
propaganda, setting up of judicial or administrative panels of inquiry,
compensation and punishments (Kotlyar & Karakowsky, 2006). These official
strategies have, however, not yielded adequate results since Nigeria’s
independence. For example, the creation of new states, which seems to be in
response to ethnic-sectional demands for new identities or consolidation of old
ones also created new bases for contested territorial and other claims, as well as
unhealthy competitions for access or succession to high political and other offices.
There have also been counter agitations and protests (even violent) against
perceived sectional marginalization in respect of participation in, and the
dividends derived from the political as well as economic fortunes of such states
(Otite,2000).
In a similar futile effort, the government deploys Armed Forces to halt
communal conflicts. Indeed, they have been successful in “suspending”, not
resolving some of these conflicts or restoring temporal order but such
interventions come after colossal damage has been done on precious lives and
valuable property (Meagher, 2007). The foregoing implies that strategies adopted
by the government in resolving communal conflicts are not so effective.
The efficient and effective management of communal conflicts is
fundamental to the development of any society. However, the prevailing situation
in Nigeria constitutes a reversal of this reality. Communal conflicts are not just
allowed to start (even when they can be prevented), but escalate and paralyze both
social and economic activities. Nigeria’s supposed success story of amalgamation
of diverse ethnic groups in 1914 has drastically shifted from a platform of
peaceful co-existence to an era of continuous violence and gradual disintegration.
The popular explanation for this unacceptable and annoying situation is perhaps
the initial “forceful” integration, corruption, political domination/marginalization,
lack of tolerance of each other’s culture and tradition, and age-long general hate
(TheUSDepartmentofState,2008).
The spate of insecurity and threat to lives and property in Nigeria,
occasioned by communal conflicts, has reached alarming proportions despite
increasing the visibility of Nigeria’s security apparatus (Erinosho, 2007). It is
estimated that about 50 episodes of violent communal conflicts, which culminated
in the death of over 10,000 persons and internal displacement of over 30,000,
were recorded in Nigeria between 1999 and 2007 (International Crises Group,
2009). For example, the November 2008 communal crises in Jos, North Central
Nigeria resulted in the death of 380 persons and destruction of property in the
range of tens of millions of naira (Adinoyi, 2009; Balogun, 2009). Also, the Tiv-
Fulani crises of 2013 to 2014, also in the North Central Zone of Nigeria, similarly
claimed losses in the same range, where schools, residences, and worship centers
were destroyed (USAID, 2014). Other recent examples of communal conflicts in
the zone are Shitile, Ukum, and the Shangev-Tiev crises in Benue State and crises
withmilitaryinAbujaandtheKadunacrises.
In view of the failure or inability of the subjects that were not eclectic in
nature to resolve communal conflicts and the attendant consequence on national
development, the government introduced Social Studies with its eclectic nature to
a holistic and viable alternative strategy to be deployed in resolving these conflicts.
This further paved the way for the official inclusion of Social Studies into school
curriculum following its success in solving societal problems not only in Britain,
but also in America as well as Nigeria in the late 1960s. This program of study
was first introduced in Britain after World Wars I & II in order to appease the
the conscience of the citizens to respect constituted authority, submissive to their
parents, show regards to the elders of the society, help to protect public property,
value the lives of fellow citizens and contribute positively towards the
development of society (Edinyang, Mezieobi & Ubi, 2013). Social Studies
curriculum, the researcher believes, if well implemented, could help to get to the
the root of the problem, rather than treating it from the branches.
Elbadawi and Sambanis (2006) assert that Social Studies itself was
introduced partially in response to these social challenges that have bedeviled the
a society with obvious consequences. It is to this extent that Social Studies was
initially defined by the Committee on Primary School Social Studies Programme
(CPSSSP) (1971) and the then Nigerian Educational Research Council (NERC),
now Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) (1983),
to mean “common learning of man’s interaction with his or her social and
physical environment”. Explaining further, both bodies state that “Social Studies
is not only a study but also a way of life of how man influences and is being
influenced by his physical, social, political, economic, psychological, and cultural
environments. It is the totality of experiences and understanding a child gets
having been exposed to a course of study based on man’s problems in his/her
environment, the factors that are normally responsible for man’s interaction and the
resulting in ways of life of man.
Some of the key objectives of the Social Studies curriculum as contained in
NERDC(1971)include:
1. Creating awareness and understanding of the evolving social and physical
environment as a whole, its natural, man-made, cultural and spiritual resources,
together with the rational use and conservation of these resources for
development.
2. Ensuring the acquisition of relevant knowledge as part of the pre-requisite to
personal development as well as making contributions to the development of
mankind.
3. Developing a sympathetic appreciation of the diversity and interdependence of
all members of the local community and the wider national and international
community.
4. Developing in children, a positive attitude to citizenship and the desire to
makepositivecontributionsforaunitedNigeria.
With these objectives, it is strongly hoped by the researcher that Social
Studies curriculum could be used as an effective tool for eradicating, or at least,
reducing significantly, the prevalence of the already identified social problems,
among which is communal conflict.
Perception is the ability to take sensory input and interpret it meaningfully.
According to Nelson and Quick (2007), perception is the process of interpreting
information using the sensory organs of an individual. In other words, perception
involves selection, organizing, and interpreting sensory stimulations into
meaningful information about the environment. Teacher’ perception of Social
Studies curriculum furnishes him/her experiences that promote thinking and
understanding that help in problem-solving. It, therefore, means that a good
perception results in effective implementation of the curriculum.
According to Grant and McTighe (2005), the attitudes of Social Studies
teachers to the subject’s curriculum contribute negatively to the subject’s quest for
the civilized way of resolving communal conflicts among community members. It
is very obvious that teachers’ way of thinking and beliefs guide their behavior in
decision-making both in and outside the classroom. The word attitude is defined
within the framework of social psychology as a subjective or mental preparation
for action. According to Souza-Barros and Marcos (2010), attitude defines
the outward and visible posture of human beliefs. Attitude determines what each
individual will see, hear, think, believe, and eventually do. According to the
authors, attitude means an individual’s prevailing tendency to respond either
favorably or unfavorably to an object, person, event, and institution. That is, it
can either be positive or negative.
Nyenwe (2009) states that education is the principal means of self and
nation-building and the primary tool for the survival of any society. Attitude is,
therefore, concerned with an individual’s way of thinking and behavior and this
has varying implications in the education chain (the learner, the teacher, the
content, and the environment). To this end, Social Studies teachers’ perception of
the desirability or otherwise of the subject’s curriculum in resolving communal
conflicts has implications for its overall objectives. If teachers of the subject see
the curriculum as being practicable, result-oriented, and implementable, they
would work towards achieving its mandate. The reverse would, however, be the
case if their perception of the curriculum is negative.
Despite the lofty objectives of the Social Studies Curriculum, a lot of intrastate and
Interstate communal conflicts abound (Kotlyar & Karakowsky, 2006). It is
indeed doubtful if the curriculum of Social Studies is diligently implemented, as
this alone has the potential of inculcating harmonious living among diverse people.
It also calls for concern whether appropriate and result oriented instructional
materials and methods are employed in the implementation of Social Studies
curriculum or the attitude of teachers towards teaching the subject is what is
responsiblefortherisingcommunalconflictsinNigeria.
This situation may have serious consequences on the achievement of
peaceful and harmonious living. There seems to be a disconnect on one hand,
between instructional materials deployed in teaching Social Studies and the
teaching methods that are used in the implementation of social studies curriculum
on the other (Ma, 2007). It also appears as if teachers of Social Studies are not
living by what they teach. This also has a tendency of discouraging learners from
embracing harmonious living as taught. Balogun (2009) observes that a lot of
reasons could be advanced for this. According to the author, schools may not be
provided with qualified teachers, adequate and relevant instructional materials.
Some teachers may also be exposed to just one or a few teaching methods.
Therefore, they may not properly apply the right method in teaching young
learners.
The situation in the north-Central states of Nigeria which is made up of Benue,
Nasarawa, Kogi, Plateau, Niger, Kwara, and the FCT appears more worrisome
(Yecho, 2007). One could, through casual observation, notice that these states
are indeed engulfed in communal conflicts. For example, the Tiv-Jukun endless
communal conflicts, the Eggon-Fulani crises, the Tiv-Fulani crises and the
Hausa/Fulani-Birom crises are just a few instances of these protracted communal
conflictsinNorth-CentralNigeria(Danladi,2009;Adebiti,2014).
Arising from the foregoing, there is a serious concern by the researcher that
if these incessant communal conflicts are not checked and the situation not
reversed, teachers could continue to see the introduction of Social Studies as just
one of those subjects whose curriculum has little or nothing to do with communal
conflicts resolution which indeed poses a threat to national development in North
Central Nigeria. It is upon the need to use the Social Studies curriculum, as perceived
by teachers, in resolving communal conflicts for national development in North-
Central Nigeria that the research is based. This is to assess teachers’ perception of
efficacy of the Social Studies curriculum in resolving communal conflicts for national
developmentinNorthCentral Nigeria.
1.2 StatementoftheProblem
The purpose of government or governance in Nigeria is to pool both human
and material resources together towards national development, or put in place
measures and amenities that will see to the general well-being of her citizens. This
could only be feasible in an atmosphere of peace, harmony, and tranquillity as it is
generally acceptable that no society develops to its full potentials amidst the chaos.
However, observation has shown that this anticipated national growth and
development is in most cases thwarted by communal conflicts which
cumulatively leave many people dead and valuable property including
government projects destroyed.
The situation appears more worrisome as it is suspected that most of the
able-bodied men or youths who are deeply involved in these conflicts are products
of Nigeria’s educational system that is taught Social Studies, whose curriculum
is designed to inculcate values of harmonious living in citizens. This, therefore,
calls to question the implementation of this curriculum-whether the approach of
teachers towards teaching the subject are wrong, whether the right methods are not
being employed or the relevant materials are not being used. This is because it is
believed that proper implementation of the Social Studies curriculum could definitely
have a transferred positive effect on learners and by extension the masses who
would at all times, stand against such conflicts no matter the extent of provocation.
It is against this background that the present study investigated if Social Studies
the curriculum could be efficacious in resolving or minimizing communal conflicts in
NorthCentralNigeria?
1.3 PurposeoftheStudy
The purpose of the study was to investigate teachers’ perception of the
efficacy of the Social Studies curriculum in communal conflicts resolution for
nationaldevelopmentinNorthCentralNigeria.Specifically, the study sought to:
1. Determine how suitable Social Studies curriculum content can influence
communalconflictsresolutioninNorth-central Nigeria.
2. Find out how the objectives of the Social Studies curriculum can influence
conflict resolution.
3. Determine the influence of teaching methods in the implementation of Social
Studiescurriculumforconflictresolution.
4. Ascertain the influence of the availability of instructional materials in the
implementationofSocialStudiescurriculumforconflictresolution.
5. Ascertain the influence of relevance of the available instructional materials
intheimplementationofSocialStudiescurriculumforconflictresolution
6. Ascertain the influence of Social Studies teachers’ attitudes in the
implementationofSocialStudiescurriculumforconflictresolution.
1.4 research questions
Thefollowingresearchquestionswereraisedtoguidethestudy:
1. What influence does the suitability of Social Studies curriculum content have
oncommunalconflictsresolutioninNorthCentralNigeria?
2. HowdoobjectivesofSocialStudiescurriculuminfluenceconflictresolution?
3. How do teaching methods influence the implementation of Social Studies
curriculum for conflict resolution?
4. How does the availability of instructional materials influence the implementation of
social studies curriculum for conflict resolution?
5. How relevant are the available instructional material in influencing the
implementationofSocialStudiescurriculumforconflictresolution?
6. How does teachers’ attitude influence the implementation of Social Studies
curriculum for conflict resolution?
1.5 Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were formulated and tested at a 0.05 level of
significance:
1. The suitability of the Social Studies curriculum has no significant influence on
resolution of communal conflicts.
2. The objectives of the Social Studies curriculum have no significant influence on
conflict resolution.
3. There is no significant influence of teaching methods on the implementation of
social studies curriculum for conflict resolution.
4. There is no significant influence of the availability of instructional materials on
implementationofSocialStudiescurriculumforconflictresolution.
5. The available instructional materials are not significantly relevant to
influencing implementation of the Social Studies curriculum for conflict
resolution.
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6. There is no significant influence of Social Studies teachers’ attitudes on
implementationofSocialStudiescurriculumforconflictresolution.
1.6 SignificanceoftheStudy The findings of this study would be of significance to Social Studies
curriculum developers and implementers Nigerian government at all levels, security
agencies/bodies that are statutorily saddled with the responsibility of curbing
communal conflicts and future researchers.
To the curriculum developers and implementers, the findings of the study
could help them to see the need to develop a more inclusive curriculum that would
recognize the role of all stakeholders in the management of communal conflicts in the
society. By so doing, might help learners to appreciate their roles as future leaders
who would always protect the society in order to inherit it later on rather than
being used as agents of destruction.
The implementers of the curriculum (the teachers) would be exposed to
their roles of faithfully implementing the curriculum, and living as role models
who can be emulated by learners even after school years? This could be done by
retraining of Social Studies teachers through teacher professional development
programs to enhance their pedagogical skills.
The results of the study may be of significance to all tiers of government -
(federal, state and local), as the findings would highlight the need for more
professional Social Studies teachers that would rapidly implement Social Studies
curriculum for national development. The study exposed the dire need for
additional training centers for Social Studies and Civic Education professionals
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that would not only design the curriculum but also efficiently implement it at all
levels of education. The findings of this study would further encourage
government at all levels towards the provision of subsidized or free Social Studies
instructional materials for teachers and learners. This would, in no small measure,
facilitatetheimplementationofSocialStudiescurriculuminschools.
To the various security bodies /agencies, the result of the study could help
them to realize the need to adopt more proactive and all-inclusive strategies in
resolving communal conflicts rather than the present situation where such
conflicts are temporally suspended for fear of the gun. This could be through
seminars and workshops organized to brainstorm on the findings and
recommendations of the study. Through this, it would help them to appreciate the
need to address the perceived grievances of communities before they go out of hand.
This could be by holding regular meetings with all organs of the society,
promoting peaceful co-existence and emphasizing the need for harmonious and
peaceful co-existence.
1.7 ScopeoftheStudy
This study covered all teachers of Social Studies in secondary schools in
The North-Central States of Nigeria. These states are Benue, Kogi, Plateau, Nasarawa,
Niger, Kwara and Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. Content-wise, the study
covered concepts and topics such as teachers’ perception, Social Studies
curriculum, communal conflicts, and national development, objectives of Social
Studies curriculum and conflict resolution, understanding the diverse nature of
people and making quality decisions towards the management of a complex crisis
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situations. The choice of states in North Central Nigeria was predicted on the
backdrop that this is an agrarian zone. There are always cases of communal
conflicts. It was, therefore, felt that a study of this nature might be beneficial in
solving the problem. It was also hoped that better opinions and responses would
be generated as the respondents are facing it directly. Thus, their responses would
be more national
Definition of Terms
Thetermsaredefinedoperationallyasfollows:
Communal conflicts: These refer to a situation of violent unrest between groups
and communities within the North Central states of Nigeria that results in wanton
destruction of lives and property.
Social Studies Curriculum: It refers to a set of themes, topics, or content that
stipulates what has to be learned or taught in Social Studies to students in basic
educationallevelinNorthCentralstatesofNigeria.
Teachers’ Perception: This means the views or impressions of Social Studies
teachers as they relate to the curriculum of Social Studies and conflict resolution
inthenorthcentralstatesofNigeria.
North-Central States Nigeria: It is a geographical area covering six Nigerian
states - Benue, Kogi, Nasarawa, Plateau, Niger, Kwara, and the Federal Capital
Territory, Abuja.
National Development: This means the increase in size, value, improved attitude
of teachers towards teaching Social Studies, increased number of national indices
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like literacy and income occasioned by peaceful co-existence among the citizenry
inNorthCentralstatesofNigeria.
.