THE CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF TRAFFIC JAM ON COMMERCIAL TRANSPORT OPERATIONS
Abstract
An effective transportation system is important in sustaining economic growth in contemporary economies since it provides linkages between different parts of the country and the global world.
An efficient transportation system plays an important role in catering to the daily necessities in the lives of the citizens. A well-established transportation system is not the only key to national growth but also serves as a catalyst for the economic development of a country. However, in recent times, cities in the world have witnessed tremendous motorization. Owing to this high level of motorization, combined with increasing population in the face of inadequate traffic management strategies, modern-day cities have witnessed high traffic congestion. The Kasoa road, in the
Awutu Senya East Municipal Assembly is an example of one of such roads with periodic high traffic congestion. This study was therefore conducted to assess the causes and effects of traffic
congestion and also its effect on road users.
The study used a mixed research approach where a survey was conducted to interview both
trotro drivers and commuters of trotro cars, and GPRTU officials were engaged in an in-depth
interview. While descriptive statistics were used to present the survey findings, content analysis was used to present the interview findings. The results show that traffic congestion is primarily caused by a large number of cars, poor nature of some part of the roads, and bad parking/stopping by drivers among others. The causes and effects of traffic congestion on the activities of private commercial drivers (trotro) were it reduces the number of trips they could make in a day, increase fuel use and reduce daily sales. To passengers, it delays their time,
leading to low productivity, and is associated with other health effects, among many others. The results point to the need for the rehabilitation of the road, construction of railway lines to serve as alternative routes, and use of other strategies for toll collection that will minimize the traffic on the road.
Table of Contents Declaration ..... i
Dedication ................................... ii
Appreciation ................................ iii
List of Tables .................................vii
List of Figures ............................... viii
List of Abbreviation ....................... ix
Abstract ........................................ x
Chapter One ......................................... 1
Introduction .......................................... 1 1.1
Background of the study ............................1 1.2
Problem Statement ................................. 5 1.3
Research Questions ........................ 8 1.4
Objectives of the study ........................... 9 1.5
Significance of the study ......................9 1.6
Population and Sample .................... 10 1.7
Type and source of data ...............10 1.8
Limitation of the study ................ 10 1.9
Organization of Dissertation .......... 11
ChapterTwo 13
Literature Review ........................ 13 2.1
Definition of traffic congestion ................ 13 2.2
Causes of traffic congestion ............. 14 2.3
Effects of traffic congestion ............ 17 2.4
Solving the problem of traffic congestion ........... 19 2.5
Public Transportation in Urban Area in Ghana......... 20
2.6 Conceptual Framework underlying the study………….23
Chapter Three .................................... 23
Methodology ................................. 27 3.1
Research Design ............... 27 3.2
Study Population ................... 27 3.3
Sampling Techniques and Sample size ...................... 28
3.4 Source of Data ............28 3.5
Method of Data Collection ................ 29 3.6
Analysis of data .................29 3.7
Field challenges ..................... 30 3.8
Ethical Consideration ...................... 30 3.9
Profile of the study area ............ 31
Chapter Four ............................. 34
Presentations and Discussion of Findings .............. 34 4.1
Demographic Characteristics of Respondent ............ 34 4.1.2
Passengers frequency of using the Kasoa road ............. 36 4.2
Nature of Traffic congestion on Kasoa road .................37 4.2.1
Passengers and Drivers assessment of the nature of traffic congestion ................... 37 4.2.2 Periods when traffic are high ........ 38 4.2.3
Time of the day with high traffic from passengers‟ perspective ............... 39 4.2.4
Time of the day with high traffic from drivers‟ perspective .............. 41 4.2.5
How often passengers get stuck in traffic ............... 42 4.3
Causes of Traffic Congestion ............... 43 4.4
Effect of traffic congestion ....................... 46 4.4.1
Effect of traffic congestion on drivers .............. 46 4.4.1.1
Effect on overall productivity .......... 46 4.4.1.2
Effect on drivers operations ............................. 47 4.4.1.3
Health Effect of traffic congestion on drivers .............. 49 4.4.2
Effect of traffic on Passengers ................... 50 4.4.2.1
Effect on overall productivity ........................ 50 4.4.2.2
Hours spent in traffic before getting to work ................... 51 4.4.2.3
Effect on health of passengers ...................... 52 4.4.2.4
Other effects of traffic congestion on passengers ................ 53 4.5
Solution to the problem of traffic congestion ................... 56 4.5.1
Action by the government to solve the problem of traffic congestion ................. 56 4.5.2 Possible ways drivers can reduce traffic congestion ........................ 57 4.5.3
Possible ways the general public can help in reducing traffic congestion ................... 58
Chapter Five .......................... 62
Summary of Findings, Conclusion and Recommendation ....................... 62 5.0 Introduction ................................ 62 5.1
Summary of Key findings ................... 62 5.2
Conclusion ................................ 64 5.3
Recommendation ............................. 65
References ..................................... 67
Appendix A: Questionnaire for drivers .................. 75
Appendix B: Questionnaire for passengers ..................... 79
Appendix C: Interview guide for GPRTU officials ............ 83
Chapter One
Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
Improving the social and economic wellbeing of the citizenry is the aim of every nation. The
long-term goal of government is to raise the standard of living of all Ghanaians to a level
consistent with that of a middle income economy. One basic economic and social necessity that
comes into focus when discussing economic and social development is transportation.
Transportation is an activity of life processes and seeks to provide access to various activities
that satisfy mobility needs of humankind (Arasan 2012).
According to Eddington (2006), an effective transportation system is important in sustaining
economic growth in contemporary economies since it provides linkages between different parts
of the country and the global world. It links to work, delivers products to market, underpins
logistics and supply chain, and supports local and international trade. A well established
transportation system is not only key to national growth but also serves as a catalyst for
economic development of a country. Thus, there is a positive relationship between transportation
and productivity (Lu et al. 2009).
At the individual level, Wane (2001, p.1) also points out that „transportation is a crucial vector
for urban insertion since it gives access to economic activity, facilitates family life and helps in
spinning social networks. It links the different spaces of the city on which an individual or a
family has to implement his or its tri-dimensional strategy of life (i.e. family, work, residence).
So, urban mobility is at the heart of the challenges faced by any city dweller‟.
Consequently, cities in the world have witnessed tremendous motorization during the recent
century, especially since 1988 when global car population exceeded 400 million (Walsh, 1990).
The reason for this phenomenon, according to Dimitriou (1990), is that in both the Developed
and Third World countries, few activities are more poorly managed than urban transport. As
such, the failure of public transport to meet the needs of travelers has intensified the demand for
private cars.
Owing to this high level of motorization, combined with inadequate traffic management
strategies, an aging and ill maintained vehicle stock, as well as inadequate land use and
transportation planning, especially in the Developing Economies, modern-day cities have
witnessed a very significant proportion of traffic congestion (Agyemeng, 2009). Described as a
phenomenon of increased disruption of traffic movement on an element of the transport system,
traffic congestion is most visible when the level of demand for movement approaches or exceeds
the present capacity of the element (Taylor, 1999). As Taylor et al. (2000) argue, traffic
congestion presents a common, if not inevitable, facet of traffic activity in a region, particularly
in urban areas.
Although there is traffic congestion in most major cities of the world, there is no standard
definition of it. In general, congestion occurs when the number of vehicles using the road is
greater than the capacity of the available road space, impeding the efficient movement of traffic
(VAGO, 2013). Rodrique et al., (2009) states that congestion can be perceived as unavoidable
consequences of scarce transport facilities such as road space, parking area, road signals and
effective traffic management. They argue that urban congestion mainly concerns two domains of
circulation, passengers and freight which share the same infrastructure. Thus, traffic congestion
condition on road networks occurs as a result of excessive use of road infrastructure beyond
capacity, and it is characterized by slower speeds, longer trip hours and increased vehicular
queuing (Takyi et al., 2013)
Traffic is a sign of mobility and of a dynamic economy. However, excessive congestion causes a
range of undesirable consequences. It has equally created an artificial barrier to a cost effective
flow of goods and persons along our highways linking major towns together (Popoola, Abiola
and Adeniji, 2013). It imposes costs on the community and businesses through longer, less
predictable travel times; lost productivity and additional running costs of vehicles; increased
pollution, noise, loss of amenity, driver stress; and reduced time people spend with their families
(VAGO, 2013)
For instance, in 2006, the Victorian Competition and Efficiency Commission (VCEC) estimated
the economic costs of Melbourne's congestion ranged from $1.3 billion to $2.6 billion per year,
and that this was likely to double by 2020. These costs incurred by the community as a whole
generally are not paid for by the road users who have caused them. While some level of
congestion is a signal that existing road capacity is being used, the challenge is to reach an
'optimal' level of congestion where some road users travel on other modes of transport or with
other users; travel at a different time of the day; postpone their trips to another day; or eliminate
the need to travel (VAGO, 2013).
African‟s urbanization is variously referred to as „parasitic urbanism‟, „urbanization of poverty‟
and „premature urbanization‟ (e.g. Ravallion et al., 2007; Kinver, 2007), echoing Professor
Mabogunje‟s (1968) claim that urbanization has outpaced economic development. To the World
Bank, Africa‟s urbanization is runaway, negatively correlated with economic growth and fuelled
by strife in rural areas (World Bank, 2000).
Like the rest of Africa, Ghana has had disappointing experiences with Rural Development and
Structural Adjustment Programs aimed at addressing urban problems (Obeng-Odoom, 2007b).
Speaking (Kwakye and Fouracre, 1998, p. 1) at a conference in Cape Town, South Africa, the
Director of Planning at the Ministry of Transport and Highways, Ghana, and his advisor said:
“The urban transport system in Ghana is characterized by the congested central areas of the
cities, poor quality of service from public transport operators, high exposure to road accidents,
and poor environmental standards. This is seen in long commuting times and journey delays,
lengthy waiting times for public transport both at and between terminals, high accident rates,
and localised poor air quality”
The analysis and solution to the urban transportation problem in the GAAS study was provided
by Addo (2002) and Tamakloe (1993). They suggested that Ghana is „over-urbanized‟. Given the
country‟s technological backwardness and weak management, they argued, satellite towns
should be created and linked to the main cities by excellent communication lines. They also
argued that the planning gap between highway engineering and Town Planning should be closed
and that institutions responsible for transport planning be brought under one umbrella. While
these solutions may promote administrative efficiency, it is difficult to see how they could have
remedied the root causes of the urban transport problem.
It is argued here, more fundamentally, that the urban transport problem is the expression of a
stressed system which is typified by the absence of alternative transport like rail, poor quality
public transport, low tech urban roads, the surge in on-street hawking of goods and services and
the either weak and/or poorly enforced urban transport regulations. This is a system that claims
about 1600 lives and causes over 10000 injuries on an annual basis (Obeng-Odoom, 2009).
1.2 Problem Statement
Urban transportation opens up opportunities to access essential services as well as social
activities (Arasan, 2012;Rodrigue et al., 2009; Lu et al.,2009). Business activities depend on
urban transportation systems to ensure the mobility of its customers, employees and suppliers.
The urban transport services cover a range of important social and economic services such as
commuting; shopping; trips to places of education and freight distribution. Effective urban
transport fulfills the demand for accessibility within cities (Okoko, 2006).
Economic and social activities of human kind revolve around transportation. It is a link to almost
all sectors of an economy. Virtually everything we do relies on transportation. Trade within and
between different regions is vital to economic development and directly depends on
transportation (Kulash, 1999; World Bank, 2002). Thus the importance of transportation to
societal growth cannot be underestimated. Broadstock (2011) and Pacione (2005), state that
increasing wealth and high population, and availability of vehicle loan facilities result in more
car ownership than current transportation network can handle. It could be inferred from the
above statement that there is a relationship between income level and car ownership and that the
dominance of private car usage, particularly within cities, is likely to increase even further as a
result of rise in household income with its attendant traffic congestion and high consumption of
fuel.
Traffic congestion has been one of major issues that most metropolises are facing. Some issues
that have been identified as having contributed to this include the rural-urban migration (with its
resultant pressures on the planning of the metropolis), the displacement of residents from the
central business district (to convert residential facilities there into commercial facilities), the poor
road networks, the increasing number of vehicles, poor timing of traffic signals, and attitudes of
road users (Ofori-Dwumfuo and Dankwah, 2011)
As Taylor et al. (2000) argued, traffic congestion presents a common, if not inevitable, facet of
traffic activity in a region, particularly in urban areas. It is also believed that the high volume of
vehicles, the inadequate infrastructure and the irrational distribution of the development are the
main reasons for increasing traffic jam (O‟Toole, 2012).
This phenomenon has resulted in, among other things, longer travel times, additional fuel
consumption, high pollution levels, vehicle wear and tear, disutility from crowding; and (in the
longer run) the costs of relocating jobs and residences and a deteriorating urban environment that
has a direct bearing on sustainable development (Intikhab et al., 2008; Palma & Lindsey,
2001).Aside the economic costs, traffic congestion can have profound adverse impacts on the
social (e.g. people unable to physically contact relations on time), environmental (e.g. excessive
emission of carbon dioxide to cause global warming) and safety concerns.
Given the enormity of the problem, policy makers all over the world have implemented several
measures to cut down or minimise the impacts of traffic congestion by properly maintaining the
current road and bridge system; constructing new roads, bridges, and non-highway
infrastructure; encouraging an appropriate balance between different modes, especially by
developing alternatives such as public transportation and finally, employing transportation
systems management and operations strategies to maximize the capacity of the infrastructure
already in place (Paniati, 2004).The Government in its attempt to salvage the situation has been
expanding road networks in almost all our major cities but the more they expand, the more
people import cars for their domestic use (Ghanaian Chronicle, 2007).
When one wants to travel within the city, there are usually two options available: either a private
car or public transport. If the person wants to travel between two cities, usually there is a third
option, a public bus. The number of private cars in Ghana is increasing. Overall, the number of
registered vehicles in Ghana increased from 511,063 in 2000 to 841,314 in 2006 (National Road
Safety Commission, 20083). Private cars in Ghana are generally not available on hire purchase
and so it requires significant income to purchase one. Generally, private cars are owned by
medical doctors, bankers, lawyers, accountants and politicians. Public transport is the more
common means of movement around the cities (Obeng-Odoom, 2009).
A recent study (ABLIN Consult, 2008) found that „over 80% of road transport passenger
services are predominantly provided by commercial transport services‟. Here too, there are two
types: taxis (for the middle class) and mini buses called „troskis‟ or „trotros‟ (for the rest)(Obeng
Odoom, 2009).There is a relatively new type of public transport, introduced by Kufour
government and therefore gave it a name, „Kufour buses‟. These are cheap in fare but woefully
inadequate and riddled with poor management. Though they have helped the transport situation
in Ghanaian cities, they are relatively unknown (Obeng-Odoom, 2009).
Apart from stopping to pick a passenger, a „trotro‟ can stop under three (other) circumstances:
first, passengers want to buy from hawkers who have invaded the streets and have caused
congestion in the cities (Akamin, 2008). Thus in the course of the journey, one can see traders
offering food, water and other wares such as dog chains to passengers. Second, a policeman
stops a „trotro‟ to either query the driver about an offence or extort some few cedis from him.
Third, the „trotro‟ breaks down in the course of the journey. Though some „trotros‟ are
roadworthy, many of them are not. With inscriptions like „God is in control; be still‟ and „Fear
not‟, the drivers try to persuade potential passengers to ignore their rickety vehicles. An
interview by Akoto et al. (2013) tells of a „trotro‟ driver who goes the extra mile to claim that the
pitch black smoke that emits from the exhaust pipe of his „trotro‟ is abundant proof that the
engine of his „trotro‟ is strong!!
A lot of research has been conducted into the phenomenon of urban transportation across the
globe and especially in cities of the developing economies. Most of the research is about travel
behaviour (Dissanayake&Morikawa, 2008); pollution (Atash, 2007); regulation and management
(Sohail et al., 2004); motorization policies (Willoughby, 2001) and congestion (Daganzo&
Cassidy, 2008).
Few authors have shown interest in urban transportation issues in Ghana. These authors have
researched on issues such as injuries or traffic accidents (Mock et al., 1999; Jørgensen&Abane,
1999) and modal choice (Abane, 1993). Aside these notable ones, not much has been written on
the issue of transportation in the urban setting, especially as it relates to the impacts of traffic
congestion on public transport provision.
It can be argued that the mode of operation of „trotros‟ and the condition in which they operate
have worsened the urban transport problem. This study is therefore conducted to assess the effect
of traffic congestion on commercial transportation from the perspective of „trotro‟ drivers who
use the Kasoa road in the Awutu Senya East Municipality. This will go a long way to provide the
requisite feedback that could influence transportation practitioners, policy makers, transportation
geographers and planners in general, to put in practical measures to address the challenge. This
will ensure a general improvement in the transport sector which will have several positive
impacts on the residents of Awutu Senya East Municipality.
1.3 Research Questions
To achieve the objectives the study, the following research questions guided the researcher in his
data collection
What are the main drivers of traffic jam on the Kasoa road from the perspective of
„trotro‟ drivers?
How does traffic jam affect commercial transport operation in the Awutu Senya East
Municipality?
What are the costs of traffic jam to commuters who patronize „trotro‟ on the Kasoa road?
What possible solutions can help minimize the traffic jam on the Kasoa road?
1.4 Objectives of the study
The main objective of the study is to examine the effect of traffic congestion on commercial
transport operation. The specific objectives to be achieved by the study are;
To examine the main causes of traffic jam on the Kasoa road
To assess the cost of traffic jam to commercial transport operation
To examine the effects of traffic jam on commuters who patronize „trotro‟ on the Kasoa
road
1.5 Significance of the study
Research of this nature is intended to be of outmost importance to the government and other
policy makers. The issue of traffic congestion is a burden that the government is pooling all
knowledge and other resources together to find a lasting solution to the ever increasing traffic
jam.
The findings of this study are also intended to inform the Awutu Senya East Municipal
Assembly, most especially the Towns and Country Planning Unit about some of the suggestions
that can help ease the traffic congestion on the road. It will contribute to creating a strategic line
of action in their quest to solve the problem.
To academia, it is intended to contribute to the ongoing discussions on traffic congestions which
have become a canker in almost all the urban centers in Ghana. Researchers at all the universities
and institutes in the country are gathering data to help propose policies to stakeholders and other
interested agencies that are interested in improving the development standards of the country.
1.6 Population and Sample
The study is designed to examine the effects of traffic jam on commercial transport operations
from the perspective of „trotro‟ drivers and offer some solutions to remedy the situation
accordingly. In view of constraints, like computational facilities, finance, time and information
resources, the study was restricted to the main Kasoa roadin the Awutu Senya East Municipality.
The total sample for the study is 110 comprising of ten (10) GPRTU officials at the main station
in the municipality were also selected for the study, 50 trotro drivers and 50 trotro passengers.
Thus, the total sample size for the study was 110.
1.7 Type and source of data
The study used primary data gathered from the field using questionnaire and interview guide as
well as secondary data gathered from books and literature used for the literature review in
chapter two. The survey data was gathered from trotro drivers and passengers whiles the
interview data was gathered from GPRTU officials
1.8 Limitation of the study
The research was not free from limitations. One of the basic issues that confronted the study was
how to sample from the population. There was no record on the number of trotro drivers that ply
the road. It was therefore a challenge to be able to get a representative sample for the population.
However, the choice of sampling methods used did not invalidate the findings of the study.
After sampling, getting the drivers to answer the questionnaire was another challenge. Many of
drivers cannot read or write well. So the researcher was forced to employ many research
assistants, and this increased the cost margin of the research.
Access to data was not easy, as anticipated. The persons that were assigned to assist the
researcher were often not available. In most cases the data was just not available, making the
whole process a little difficult.
Given the scope and time frame the researcher had to complete this work, time constraint became
a major obstacle to the researcher. Much money was required for the completion of this work.
Like every study done, the respondents may not always be truthful in the answers they give.
1.9 Organization of Dissertation
The thesis is organized in five chapters, references and appendix. Chapter one covers a
background information to transportation in Africa and Ghana. The problem statement,
objectives, research questions as well as the significance of the study are captured in this chapter.
The chapter contains information on the scope of the study as well as the limitation of the study.
Chapter two reviews the related literature about transportation problems in general. It includes
summaries of prior research on road traffic congestion as well as the conceptual framework of
the study.
Chapter three covers the methodology of the study, which includes the research design, sources
of data, sampling and sample size, data collection and data analysis. The profile of the
municipality as well as the ethical issues considered in the study has also been captured in the
chapter. Chapter four covers an analysis and discussion of the findings. Chapter five gives the
summary and conclusion of the study. It also makes some recommendations for policy purposes
and future studies in this field.
.